??????? ?????????? ??????????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????????? ?/ ???? ??? ??? ??????
???? ????? ???? ?????????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذه الصورة] ????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ????? (??????? ?????????? ??????????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???????????) ?????:88? ? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???????. ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ???? 23.5 ???? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ????? (????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ??????? )?????:15.
??? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ???????.
????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????.
??? ???? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ???????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ?? ?????????? ?? ?????? ??????.
????? ???????? ???? "?? ????" ???? ?????? (??????? ?????????? ??????????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????????) ?? ????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ????: ?? ????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ???? "??????" ???? ?? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ?? ????.
????? "???????" ???? ??? ???????? ?? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ?"???" ?? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ????? ??? ???????.
(?????? ?????? ???? ?????????) ?????? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? "???? ???? ?? ???" ?? ????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???? ???? ????: (??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ??????).
???? ?????: ????? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ???????.
??????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ???????? ? ??? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ?? ?????.
??? "????? ??????" ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ????????? ??? ???? ?????: {??????? ??????????} ?????? ??? ???? ????? (???????? ??????? ??? ????????) ?? ???? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?? ?? ??????? ???? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ????? ????? (?????? ??????? ????????? ??????? * ????????? ?????????? ???????) ????????:10? ????? ????? (???????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ?????????) ???? ?????:47? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ??? ????.
???? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??? ???? ???? (?? ??? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ???????).
??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ??????.
????? {???????? ????????? ??????????} ???? ??? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???? «???? ??????» ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ???? «????» ?????? ??????? ?{??????????} ?????? ???? ???? {????} ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????.
????? ???? ?????? «????» ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?«??????» ????? ????? ??? ???? ??? ???? "????????" ? ??????? ????? ??? ??? ???????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????? "????? ??? ?????" ?? ????? ????? ??? ????? " ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????" ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ????????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? (???? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ?? ??????) ??????? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ??????.
??? ???? ???????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ??? ?????:
1. ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ????? (???????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ????) ??: 105? ???? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ????????.
2. ???? ????? (?????? ????? ) ???? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ?????
[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذه الصورة] ?? ??????? ??? ?????? )???????:5. 3. ????? ????? (??? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ) ???? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???????.
?"????????" ???? ?? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ?????( ??? ???? ???? ???? ?? ???) ???? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ???: ??????? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ???????? ????? ????????.
?? ??? (??? ????) ???? ?? ??????? ????????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??? ??? "????????" "???? ????" ?? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ???????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? "???????? "?? ??????? ??????? (?? ??????) ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? (?? ??????) ?? (?? ???????) ?? ?? ??? ????
??? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ??: ????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????.
????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ????????? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ???? .
????? ??????? ????????? ???? ?????? ??????? Earth Crust ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?????????? ?????????? ??????????? ???????????- ????? ??? 10- 70, ??????? 2.7-3.4 ??/??3 (??? ?????), ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ???????? ?????????????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? (????) ???? ?????? Mantle ?????? ?? ?????????? ??????? ??????????? ?????? 2500-3000??, ????? ????? 4-6 ??/??3.
???? ??? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ????.
??? ????? ?? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ???? ???????? ??? ????? ??????? ????????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ??????????? Athenosphere ? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ????.
?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ??? ????? ???? ???????:
1. ????? ???????? :American Plate ?????????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ??????.
2. ????? ???????? African Plate: ????? ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????.
3. ????? ????????Eurasian Plate : ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? Plate .
4. (???????????) Antarcatica : ?????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? .
5. ????? ?????? Indian Plate: ?????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ??????.
6. ????? ?????? Pacific Plate: ?????? ?????? ? ??????.
? ???? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???????:
[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذه الصورة]???? ??????? ?????? ????????? :Convergent Movement
?????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ???????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???????? Subduction ???? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ??? :
1. ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ????? 45 ????? ???. ?????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ??? 2004 .
2. ???? ?????? ??? ????? 360-286 ????? ??? ??? ?????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ???????? ????????? ?????????.
3. ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??????? (Tethys) ???? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ????????. ??? ?? ????? ??????:
[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذه الصورة]???? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ????. ??? ?? ??? ??? ???????? ???? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ???????? ????????? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ????????.
??? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??????????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ???????. ????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ????????.
?????? ????????? (???????) :Divergent Movement
???? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? (???????) ?? ???? ??????????? (Asthenosphere) ??? ???? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????. ???? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ??????.
???? ??? ???? ????? ????? ????? ? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ????? (?????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????? ????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ??????????) ????????: 104.
??? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?? ???????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ????(???? - ????? - ????) ?? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ?????????? ???????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ??????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? (????) ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????:
[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذه الصورة]????? ???? ??????? ?????????
???? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ????????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ????????? ?? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ??????????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ??????. ??? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????.
????? ????? ??????? ??????? Paleomap Project ????????? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????????. ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ????? ???????? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?????? (255 ????? ???) ????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? (Pangea) ????? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????? (????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? Paleomap Project).
[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذه الصورة]?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ????? "??? ????? ??????"? ???? ????? (?????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????? ????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ??????????) ????????: 104.
??? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ????????.
???? ??????? ?? ??????:
[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]???????:
1. ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ????????:
[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]?????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? - ????? ?. ??? ?????? ??????
[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] 3.
1. PALEOMAP Project, http//:
[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] 2. Hancock, Paul L; Skinner, Brian J; Dineley, David L (2000). The Oxford Companion to the Earth. Oxford University Press.
3. Turcotte, D. L.; Schubert, G. (2002). Geodynamics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
4. Schmidt Victor A, Harbert William. "The Living Machine: Plate Tectonics". Planet Earth and the New Geosciences (3rd ed.).
5. Butler, Rob (2001). Where and how do the continents deform?, Himalayan tectonics, Dynamic Earth. School of Earth Sciences, University of Leeds.
6. Pedro Mendia-Landa. (1999) "Myths and Legends on Natural Disasters: Making Sense of Our World".
7. Tanimoto Toshiro, Lay Thorne (2000). "Mantle dynamics and seismic tomography". Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 97 (23): 12409–12410.
8. Conrad CP, Lithgow-Bertelloni C (2002). "How Mantle Slabs Drive Plate Tectonics". Science 298 (5591): L45.
????? ?????? - ??????? ??? ?????? ??? - ??? ????? - ????? -1980????